Abstract
Invasive medical procedures are considered very stressful and anxiety evoking by patients. Anxiety in turn affects acute pain, such that heightened anxiety reduces pain threshold, which may limit a physician’s ability to complete a procedure.
Anxiety and pain experienced by patients prior to and during medical procedures also impact negatively on postoperative outcomes, e.g., post-operative pain, poorer recovery, increased analgesic use, increased physical complaints, and reduced immune function (e.g., Kain et al., 2000; Kielcolt-Glaser et al., 1998; Osborn & Sandler, 2004).
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